MPC-001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning And Memory Chapter Wise Notes For IGNOU Exams

MPC-001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning And Memory

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CHAPTER 1: Information Processing

1.1 Cognitive Psychology

• Definition: Study of mental processes (e.g., perception, memory, reasoning) and their role in behavior.
• Historical Context:
  • Emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against behaviorism.
  • Key figures: Ulric Neisser (“Cognitive Psychology,” 1967), George Miller (working memory capacity: 7±2 chunks).
• Core Principles:
  • Mind as an information processor.
  • Use of experimental methods (e.g., reaction time studies, neuroimaging).

1.2 Information Processing in Learning and Memory

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968):
  • Sensory Memory: Brief storage (milliseconds to seconds); Sperling’s iconic memory experiments.
  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (7±2 items); rehearsal maintains information.
  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited storage; declarative (facts/events) vs. procedural (skills).
• Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972):
  • Depth of processing (shallow vs. semantic) determines memory retention.
• Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974):
  • Components: Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

1.3 Neuropsychological Basis of Learning and Memory

In 1953 at a medical conference, the neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville from the Montreal Neurological Institute reported on bilateral removal of the medial temporal lobe in one epileptic patient and several schizophrenic patients.

• Key Brain Structures:
  • Hippocampus: Critical for LTM formation; case studies (H.M. and Clive Wearing).
  • Amygdala: Emotional memory modulation.
  • Prefrontal Cortex: Working memory and executive functions.
• Neuroplasticity: Synaptic strengthening (Hebbian theory: “cells that fire together, wire together”).

 

• MEMORY
  Memories are solidified in long-term stores over days, weeks, months, and years. This process is referred to as consolidation, an old concept that refers to how long term memory develops over time after initial acquisition. From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, consolidation is conceived of as biological changes that underlie the long-term retention of learned information, and we can ask what brain structures and systems support this process.

1.4 Models of Information Processing

• Connectionist Models: Neural networks simulating learning via weighted connections.
• Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): Simultaneous processing across networks.
• ACT-R Model (Anderson, 1983): Integrates declarative and procedural knowledge.

CHAPTER 2: Intelligence and Creativity

2.1 Theories of Intelligence

• Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory (1904):
  • g factor(general intelligence) and s factors (specific abilities).
• JP Das’s PASS Model (1975):
  • Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive
• Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938): Seven factors (e.g., verbal comprehension, spatial visualization).

2.2 Multiple Theories of Intelligence

• Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (1967):
  • 180 intellectual abilities (operations x contents x products).
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (1983):
  • Eight types (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical).
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (1985):
  • Analytical, Creative, and Practical

2.3 Measurement of Intelligence

• Stanford-Binet (1916): IQ formula (mental age/chronological age x 100).
• Wechsler Scales (WAIS, WISC): Deviation IQ (mean=100, SD=15).
• Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Non-verbal fluid intelligence test.

2.4 Creativity and Problem Solving

• Creativity Stages (Wallas, 1926):
  • Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification.
• Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (1966): Assess fluency, flexibility, originality.
• Problem Solving:
  • Algorithms(step-by-step) vs. Heuristics (mental shortcuts, e.g., means-end analysis).
  • Impediments: Functional fixedness, confirmation bias.

CHAPTER 3: Language

3.1 Language Acquisition

• Nativist Theory (Chomsky, 1959):
  • Language Acquisition Device (LAD); universal grammar.
  • Critical period hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967).
• Interactionist Theory: Social interaction (Vygotsky) and cognitive development (Piaget).

3.2 Language Processing

• Comprehension:
  • Parsing (syntactic analysis); Garden-Path Model(Frazier, 1987).
  • Semantic integration (e.g., N400 ERP component).
• Production:
  • Dell’s Model (1986): Interactive activation of semantic, syntactic, phonological nodes.
  • Speech errors (e.g., spoonerisms: “shoving leopard” → “loving shepherd”).

3.3 Multilingualism and Cognition

• Cognitive Benefits: Enhanced executive control (Bialystok, 2001), delayed dementia onset.
• Code-Switching: Context-dependent language use (Myers-Scotton, 1993).

3.4 Language and Speech Disorders

• Aphasia:
  • Broca’s(non-fluent speech) vs. Wernicke’s (fluent but nonsensical).
• Dyslexia: Phonological processing deficits.
• Stuttering: Disruptions in speech fluency; neurogenic or developmental causes.

CHAPTER 4: Problem Solving

4.1 Nature of Problem Solving

• Well-Defined Problems(e.g., math equations) vs. Ill-Defined Problems (e.g., climate change).

4.2 Stages of Problem Solving (Newell & Simon, 1972)

1. Problem Identification
2. Definition(goal state, operators).
3. Strategy Formulation(algorithmic vs. heuristic).
4. Organization/Resource Allocation.
5. Monitoring and Evaluation.

4.3 Theoretical Approaches

• Gestalt Psychology (Köhler, 1925): Insight learning (“Aha!” moments; chimpanzee experiments).
• Information Processing: Search strategies (e.g., means-end analysis in Tower of Hanoi).
• Analogical Reasoning: Using past solutions (e.g., Rutherford’s solar system atom model).

4.4 Impediments to Problem Solving

• Mental Set: Rigid thinking (e.g., Luchins’ water jar experiment).
• Functional Fixedness(Duncker, 1945): Inability to see novel uses (e.g., candle problem).
• Heuristics:
  • Availability(judging based on ease of recall).
  • Representativeness(stereotyping).

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Cognitive Psychology & Research Methods

1. Describe the major historical schools of psychological thought leading up to the development of cognitive psychology.
2. Analyse how various research methods in cognitive psychology reflect empirist and rationalist approaches to gaining knowledge.
3. Design a rough sketch of a cognitive-psychological investigation involving one of the research methods described in this chapter. Highlight both the advantages and disadvantages of using this particular method for your investigation.
4. Describe Cognitive Psychology as it is today. How might you speculate that the field will change in the next 50 years?
5. How might an insight gained from basic research lead to practical use in an everyday setting?
6. Describe some real life situations related to different domains of cognitive psychology.

Memory and Information Processing

7. Describe two characteristics each of sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.
8. Discuss the information processing approaches of learning and memory.
9. How would you design a study program to process the information so that it can be retained in long term memory?

• Describe the development of memory with reference to information processing.
• How would your life be different if you could greatly enhance your memory skills?
• What are the basic principles of information processing?
• What are the three things you have learned about memory that can help you learn new information so that you can effectively recall the information over the long-term?

Neuropsychology of Memory

• Summarize the findings of neuropsychological research on localising memory in the brain.
• Compare and contrast the human and animal models of the study of neural basis of memory.
• What exactly do findings from memory studies with amnesic patients tell us about the way memory operates in nonamnesic people?
• Imagine what it would be like to recover from one of the forms of amnesia. Describe your impressions of and reactions to your newly recovered memory abilities.
• How would you design an experiment to study the neural process of semantic memory by functional MRI technique?
• Patient H.M. and others with damage to the medial temporal lobe develop amnesia. What form of amnesia do they develop, and what information can they retain, and what does this tell us about how memories are encoded in the brain?

Models of Memory

• Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of information processing in detail.
• Compare information processing and level of processing models of memory.
• How does a connectionist (PDP) model handle memory?
• What is meant by level of recall, level of processing, and self-reference effect?
• What are the basic principles and models of information processing?

Intelligence Theories

• Discuss the salient features of two-factor theory.
• Critically appraise Spearman’s two-factor theory.
• What constructs has PASS theory borrowed from the fields of neuropsychology and information processing?
• Give operational definitions of all four processes of PASS theory.
• Are the nine kinds of intelligence proposed by Gardner interrelated?
• Evaluate the importance of Gardner’s approach in the explanation of intelligence.
• How is Gardner’s theory different from Guilford’s construct-of-intellect theory?
• Critically evaluate Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence.
• Explain the three subtheories or facets of triarchic theory of intelligence.
• How is triarchic theory of intelligence different from the construct-of-intellect theory?

Intelligence Testing

• Describe the history of intelligence tests and present an account of the concepts of IQ and deviation IQ.
• Explain the types of intelligence tests with their relative advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe the development of Simon-Binet tests. Also present a detailed account of SB5.
• Provide a historical account of development of variants of Wechsler Scales. Describe the nature, structure and interpretation of WAIS-IV.
• By explaining theoretical grounds of Kaufman’s Scales present a complete description of structure and interpretation of KABC-II and KAIT.

Creativity

• Explain how Investment and Confluence Theory approach creativity and present an account of aspects of creative thinking.
• Briefly discuss the stages of creativity.
• Describe how creativity is related with intelligence and explain the threshold hypothesis in this regard.
• Give an account of measurement of creativity.
• Define the problem solving behaviour and describe the terms related to problem solving.

Language Acquisition

• Compare and contrast the behaviourism and innateness theories of language acquisition.
• Nature and nurture both influence the course of language development. Explain with empirical evidence.
• Illustrate cognitive theory of language acquisition in detail.
• Give a sample of an utterance one might reasonably expect to hear from an 18-month-old child.

Language Development & Comprehension

• What is the role of context and expectations in the interpretation of speech? How has the influence of context been studied experimentally?
• What are several major features of language development?
• Compare and contrast the role of speech perception, syntax and semantics in the development and understanding of language.
• What are the different processes involved in language comprehension?
• The exposition of Kintsch’s model is necessarily abstract and therefore difficult to comprehend. Preserve in your reinstated searches! See if you can use it to deal with a new example of text selected from another course.
• What factors are included in Kintsch’s model? How does the reader enter into this model?

Multilingualism & Language Disorders

• What can multilingualism tell us about language structures and processes?
• What are the advantages of being bilingual? Can you think of any disadvantages?
• Compare and contrast the speech errors made by individuals in different speech disorders.
• Based on the discussion of language disorders in this chapter, make a worksheet of different kinds of language disorders and their symptoms and causes.
• What do brain disorders like Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias tell us about how a healthy brain processes phonological, syntactic and semantic information?

Problem Solving & Thinking

• What is the role of various types of thinking involved in solving different kinds of problems?
• Describe the four molar stages of problem solving.
• Compare and contrast the role of productive thinking and structurally blind thinking in problem solving.
• Emotional states can affect many cognitive processes. What can be the effect of these various emotional states on problem solving?
• Compare and contrast the generate-test, the means-ends and the backward search method of problem solving.
• Discuss “thinking aloud” as a method of studying human problem solving.
• Discuss “other strategies” in problem solving. For example, abstraction, divide and conquer, etc.
• Critically evaluate the utility of artificial intelligence in problem solving.
• Compare and contrast the general stages of problem solving with the stages of creative problem solving.

Problem Solving Approaches

• Explain Wickelgren’s approach of general problem solving strategies.
• Compare the Gestalt approach of problem solving with information processing approach to problem solving.
• Newell’s problem solving approach rests on a famous hypothesis in the literature of problem solving. Name and explain this hypothesis.
• Critically discuss Newell’s approach to problem solving.
• What do you understand by the term “General Problem Solver”? Explain with examples.
• What is a mental set? Think of the few problem situations where you think your mental set hampered effective problem solving.
• Describe some novice-expert differences in problem solving.
• Critically evaluate the concept of functional fixedness.

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